»Souffles« was a literary and cultural quarterly review published in Rabat, Morocco. Its first issue was published in February 1966, the last in December 1971. In all, there were 22 issues. The cover, designed by the painter Mohamed Melehi, was austere yet elegant: under a geometric square glowed a round circle, a black sun. The composition remained unchanged for the first 14 issues. Only the cover and the circle’s color changed. On the back, »Souffles« was written in Arabic, Anfâs (›breezes‹, ›breaths‹). Inside, it contained some drawings and illustrations. Up to the double issue 10-11, the magazine was only in French; it then became bilingual (French and Arabic). After the 15th issue, the lay-out, cover and size changed. Those who have written on the history of »Souffles« divide it into two periods: the first from 1966 to 1969, the second from 1969 to 1971-72 ¹. During the first period, its collaborators were poets, writers, artists and intellectuals passionately working for a new Moroccan, and Maghrebi, culture. The second period was marked by a radical ideological Marxist-Leninist turn. »Literature was no longer sufficient,« declared Abdellatif Laâbi, the founder and editor of »Souffles.« The literary section was now less consistent than the political section, which was dedicated to Third World struggles for independence against colonial imperialism and to national politics. Because of its new approach, »Souffles« was banned in 1972 and Laâbi arrested for his political opinions. While in prison he was awarded several international poetry prizes and, after a long solidarity campaign, regained his freedom in 1980.

The role of »Souffles« and the impact of its literary, artistic and cultural production were of the greatest importance. »Souffles« figures in the annals of Maghrebi modern history as a bold, innovative experience. Besides »Eaux Vives«, it was the first independent literary magazine in French. Since its inception, it attracted some of the best young poets, artists and intellectuals, whose support and contribution significantly shaped modern Moroccan and Maghrebi culture. It was not only a literary magazine; it also published notes and comments on the socio-cultural situation, cinema, theatre, art, as well as critical texts, manifestos and historical essays. By demasking neo-colonial ideology, it stirred up the stagnant literary and intellectual situation in the country. Some of its comments and notes were audacious, clear-sighted pamphlets on highly urgent matters. For a magazine that had started with a slim publication of 35 pages, it was a remarkable achievement to become the cultural reference for a whole generation. Having participated in its genesis, and collaborated on some of its first issues, I will try here to describe the magazine’s historical background and its importance.

[b]Historical background[/b]

When Morocco gained independence in 1956, much needed to be done to free its culture from the burden of colonial (French and Spanish) ideology. Colonialism had imposed a patronizing, Euro-centric culture and controlled every aspect of life, outlawing political parties, associations, gatherings and group activities. Moroccan authors and media and the use of Arabic language were often censored. The colonial protectorate had industrialized and modernized the country mainly to control and exploit people, land and resources for its own profit. Although fascinated by their »exotic« aspects, it had ignored the universal values of the local culture, its historical heritage, its dignity of identity. By curbing freedom of expression, it had inhibited the development of a national modernist avant-garde. Moroccan culture was mainly regarded as picturesque. Modern thought and intellectual life were not supposed to suit the Moroccans and were considered a dangerous challenge to colonialism itself. But Morocco and the Maghreb were very rich in history and contained a wealth of artistic, poetic and intellectual traditions, and modernist ideas had spread in many circles and domains even before the arrival of the colons. The echoes of the Near East’s »Nahdha« (»renewal«) had stirred the Maghreb since the beginning of the 20th century. Although much of the intellectual elite’s energies had been absorbed by the struggle for freedom and although people’s desire for progress and development had been curbed by discriminatory policies, modernist movements were on the make. In spite of censorship and control, urban elites had their intellectuals, writers, reviews and publications ². Some authors, like Ahmed Sefrioui, Driss Chraibi and the philosopher Mohamed Aziz Lahbabi had published in French.

Yet, after independence, a petty provincial and Eurocentric culture was still dominating the scene. The salons organized for Western artists admitted only Moroccan »naïve« painters as a touch of »indigenous color.« Local European poets used to gather in »clubs littéraires« around the foreign cultural missions »where they wrote verses on the ambassadors’ gardens« ³. They ignored the best of Western production and the daring experiments of modernity, as well as the high tradition of classical Arabic poetry, not to say Afro-Berber and popular arts and literature. They were not interested in the productions of a Moroccan cultural avant-garde. It is important to keep all this in mind, as the Western world has not always acknowledged what colonialism really was. It might be interesting, for that matter, to read the courageous writings of the Moroccan historian Germain Ayache, ⁴ who in the 50s denounced the abuses of colonialism, the distress and misery of the Moroccan population and the control over its cultural roots. To understand the impact of »Souffles,« one has to go back to a situation still shaped by the dramatic consequences of all this. On the other hand, after half a century of colonial propaganda and isolation, the Moroccan bourgeoisie had either lost touch with its roots or found refuge in a nostalgic, if not dogmatic, vision of the past. A modernist national culture had yet to be loudly proclaimed, its theoretical basis openly debated, its creative and visionary nature concretely expressed in terms that would correspond to the new realities of an independent Morocco.

Owing to a remarkable set of circumstance, this was possible around 1964, when, in Casablanca and in Rabat, two small groups of young artists and poets joined forces to launch a movement that generated profound changes and is today considered the milestone of a new era. They produced vibrant original works of art and literature, formulated their ideas in clear words and, most importantly, started organizing their own independent events. It is true that in the same year, 1964, some other intellectuals had founded, in Arabic, the important independent magazine »Aqlam,« yet its contribution was mainly philosophical and theoretical rather then poetical and avant-garde. Up to then, culture had either been in the hands of foreign missions or of the state bureaucracy and conservative elites. With the exception of the writer Driss Chraibi, the older intellectuals looked at the new groups with uneasy surprise or disdain. Who where they? A handful of creative young people with daring ideas that suddenly broke into the scene and galvanized the attention of the public.

There was the so-called »Casablanca Group« of artists (Mohamed Melehi, Farid Belkahia, Mohamed Chebaa), about whose innovative activities and works (paintings, exhibits, manifestos, debates, publications) I have written since 1964,⁵ as I was myself a member of the group. On the other hand, in 1964 two young talented poets, Mohamed Khaïr-Eddine and Mostafa Nissaboury, had published the manifesto »Poésie Toute« and the review »Eaux Vives« (only two issues) in Casablanca. »For Khaïr-Eddine, breaking with the existent literatures, both in French and in Arabic, was the main historical duty of the new generation.« ⁶ When they met another young poet, Abdellatif Laâbi, the birth of »Souffles« was already almost a foregone conclusion. And when the »Casablanca Group« joined them, a movement came into being. They shared goals, hopes and visions. They considered themselves a generation committed to building a free, just, inventive national culture. They were a truly avant-garde. »We work with all our awareness for a future world [...] and this review intends to be a tool for the new literary and poetic generation,« declared Laâbi in the first issue of »Souffles.«

In order to answer the question »Who are we after the impact of colonialism?«, they had to look back at the roots that had been most depreciated both by colonialism and by the national bourgeoisie: that is, oral traditions, Afro-Berber and popular Arabic poetry, arts and culture. The first to focus on this heritage in Morocco were the abstract artists of the »Casablanca Group,« who claimed that popular traditional arts were »modern« ante litteram in spirit and aesthetics. Colonial ethnography had considered them »minor arts,« but for the »Casablanca Group,« as for Klee and Gropius, a rural carpet was »a painting« and the artisan an artist. The poets of »Souffles« could not but agree. In the meantime they were all determined to fully participate in the 20th century, experimenting with new languages and ideas and sharing universal values with all the poets and artists of the world. When they stood up and said »Enough!« to provincial salons and »clubs littéraires,« they expressed deep expectations of a change. Their artistic and poetical revolt spread like a hot wind in summer. Those artists and intellectuals who had up to then worked in solitude were encouraged to join. Thus, when, in 1966, Abdellatif Laâbi concretely started the project of »Souffles« in Rabat, he could count on the support of some talented and committed poets, painters and intellectuals. The project was heralded and carried on by means of fervid and visionary discussions in cafés and studios. The »Casablanca Group« designed the cover and illustrations. Getting on one of the old buses that once crossed the country, the painter Melehi took the magazine to Tangier, where it was printed at a lower price than in Rabat. Such was the birth of »Souffles«.

The first issue was thin, but it responded »to an imperative demand« (Laabi). Soon it reached 100 pages. Khaïr-Eddine had by then migrated to France and his name does not figure in the »comité d’action,« but his presence was assured by his poems. Haunted and solitary, Khaïr-Eddine (whose mother tongue was Berber) had fuelled new Moroccan poetry (and literature) with the concepts of the »linguistic guerrillas.« To finish with the garden verses and the classical elegies, someone had to dare to break the rules of literary French. He did so and opened the way to language experimentation. Widely debated by Maghrebi writers in French, through »Souffles« the question reached the young generation of Moroccan writers both in French and in Arabic. At the core of the debate - besides the question of »langue« versus »langage« - was the question: »In which language would the new independent Moroccan writers write?« The answer given by Laâbi in the first issue of »Souffles« is still valuable today: »The language of a poet,« he wrote, »is above all ›his own language,‹ the one that he creates.« By encouraging translations and collaborations, »Souffles« had the great merit not to divide literary production into Francophone and Arabophone, as creation and culture in both languages were considered (and are) a complementary historical reality rooted in a common ground.

[b]»Souffles«, its debates and activities[/b]

»Souffles« would have not come into existence without Laâbi’s steadfast work. His poetical gift and passions were matched by his rigorous intellect. He was aware of his mission. »Souffles« opened with a severe »j’accuse...« regarding the cultural situation in Morocco, and focused on the question of national identity and culture, but did not forget to write that »Our writer friends, Maghrebi, Africans, Europeans and of other nationalities are fraternally invited to participate in our modest enterprise.« He was far-sighted. And he soon received letters from Europe and the Maghreb. The Tunisian writer Albert Memmi wrote »I was waiting for this publication, I was hoping it would exist«, Driss Chraibi affirmed »your magazine is fantastic!,« and the Algerian writer Mouloud Mammeri welcomed the »young« review. Such encouragement from three great writers of the older generation was important. As the mouthpiece of a new generation, the review took a stand in the defense of those Maghrebi writers - like Chraibi or Kateb Yacine (Algeria) - whose work had expressed the revolt against both local feudalism and foreign occupation. What the authors who were published by »Souffles« meant to young readers was of great importance. Paralyzed by the language problem (literary French? classical Arabic? Berber oral tradition?), they had long repressed their anguishes, rages, emotions and hopes. Now each of them could »create« their language, use vernacular terms, experiment, »scream.« Nissaboury has called it »poésie chacaliste«: the screaming of the jackal. Soon, however, »la poésie chacaliste« would be a juvenile joke and each poet - Laâbi as the first - would reach poetical maturity.

In the 3rd issue we find mention of a »comité d’action.« It included Ahmed Bouanani, Nissaboury, Abdallah Stouky, the Algerian poet Malek Alloula and the French poets Bernard Jakobiak and André Laude. Bouanani, a fine intellectual and a wonderful story-teller, was the author of beautiful poems later collected in the anthology »Les Persiennes.« His articles on popular poetry were remarkable at a time when that subject had been studied only by ethnologists. The names in the »comité« were to change somewhat over the years. One of the first to give support to Laâbi, Nissabory, the amazing author of the book »La Mille et Deuxième Nuit,« remained a member until 1969. So did the painters of the »Casablanca Group.« In the course of time, among the various collaborators we find distinguished authors like Mostafa Lacheraf (Algeria), Azeddine Madani and Mohamed Aziza (Tunisia), Abdallah Laroui and Abdelkhébir Khatibi (Morocco). Except for a long poem by Etel Adnan (Lebanon) and few other critical contributions (by Jeanne Fabre and myself), women were barely present in »Souffles.« However, when women poets and writers came on the scene with their own books, magazines and actions, they looked back at »Souffles« as an experience that had prepared the ground for new ideas.

Every issue of »Souffles« opened with a note by Laâbi. The »urgent matters« were innumerable. Significantly, religion was not an issue: fundamentalism had not yet troubled the old and wise Maghrebi Islam, which was open to changes and secularity. In 1967, besides poetry readings, Laâbi and his poet friends, with the support of Melehi, created the »Collection Atlantes«, which published booklets by Jakobiak, Laâbi, Nissaboury, Alloula, and Laâbi’s book »L’Oeil et la Nuit«. In 1968, »Souffles« participated in the birth of the national cultural association ARC (»Action et Recherche Culturelle«), created - as Laâbi wrote - by »some artists, university researchers, scientific and technical professionals, students....« It was an important and ambitious project that also involved political parties. »Souffles« took part with enthusiasm in the first cultural activities that were boldly extended to the rest of the Maghreb. The collaboration of Abraham Serfaty, a notable Moroccan intellectual, became more relevant than the one with Tahar Ben Jelloun. Convicted with Laâbi in 1972 and later imprisoned, Serfaty was set free in 1991.

After the 15th issue, dedicated to Palestine (»Pour la Révolution Palestinienne«), »Souffles« changed its lay-out, cover and format. Laâbi’s review had become »the organ of the revolutionary Moroccan movement« (Gontard). This was a radical change. A decision, recalls Jakobiak, of »idealistic generosity,« »one that pushes you [however] to all kinds of ruptures and divides the world into two halves: the good and the bad [...] Once the euphoria faded there were those who converted to dialectic materialism and those who did not.» Painters and poets of the first period of »Souffles« did not follow the new course (or were not accepted in the new »comité d’action«). In a climate of painful debates, the »creative« group split from the »political« group. It was the normal outcome for a cultural movement. The same had happened to other groups in the history of modern avant-gardism. Those who believe in free independent creation resist the diktat and jargon of political parties. On the other hand, ideology needs intellectuals and poets to renew its views on the world. »Souffles« had generously offered its contribution. It then issued consistent documents on the main revolutionary struggles of the time (Angola, South Africa, Mozambique, etc.) as well as on the political situation in Morocco. In a troubled time of »betrayed independence« (Laâbi) »Souffles’« new course was important for the nation’s political awareness. Yet when art and poetry had spoken loud, they had also set in motion a change that was also revolutionary and good for the nation’s awareness. If the »Souffles« of the first period and its collaboration with the »Casablanca Group« had never been, Morocco and the Maghreb would have felt its absence. That is why, when the younger Moroccan generation writes today about »Souffles,« it looks back with admiration at its artists and poets, who had the courage to create and invent, as well as at its intellectuals, who had the courage to defy injustice ⁷.

 

 

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